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Arme (corps militaire)

Une arme en tant que composante des forces armées d'une nation, se définit comme l'ensemble des effectifs, moyens et armements affectés à un type particulier de missions. Jusqu'au XIXème siècle, les armées étaient traditionnellement composées de quatre grandes armes : la cavalerie, l' infanterie, l'artillerie et le génie.

Avec les développements technologiques qui marquèrent l' « art de la guerre » depuis le début du XXème siècle, de nouvelles armes ont fait leur apparition au sein des armées modernes : l' arme des transmissions, du renseignement militaire et, depuis la Première Guerre mondiale, l'arme blindée et l'arme aérienne. La Seconde Guerre mondiale a vu l'apparition de l'arme nucléaire qui, au fil de la Guerre froide est devenue l' arme « nucléaire, bactériologique et chimique » ( désignée communément sous le sigle « N.B.C. » ).

Notes et références

Références

Catégorie:Glossaire militaire

Intendance militaire

L' intendance militaire est constituée par l'ensemble des moyens et personnels affectés, au sein des forces armées, au soutien et à l'appui logistique des forces combattantes.

Articles connexes

• Intendance militaire (France)
• Red Ball Express

Guerre à l'Ère moderne

Bibliographie

• Bruno Colson : L'art de la guerre de Machiavel à Clausewitz, Presses universitaires de Namur, 2002 (ISBN 2870373694)
• Michel Fortmann : Les cycles de Mars : Révolutions militaires et édification étatique de la Renaissance à nos jours, Economica, Bibliothèque Stratégique, 2009 (ISBN 2717856862) (ISBN 978-2717856866)
• Émile Wanty : L'art de la guerre Marabout Université, Éditions Gérard & Co, Verviers, 1967 pour les tomes 1 et 2 et 1968 pour le tome 3.

Articles connexes

• Recrutement militaire en France avant 1789

Liens externes

• (en) Polish Warfare 1450 to 1699

Notes et références

• (en) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé « Early modern warfare » (voir la liste des auteurs).

MATOS

• en:Early modern warfare

Évolution de l'Art de la guerre à l'époque de la poudre noire

TITRE PROVISOIRE

L'« Art de la guerre » de la fin du Moyen Âge au XIXème siècle is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive. Gunpowder was first invented in China and then later spread to western nations of the Middle East. It then found its way into Eastern Europe following the invasions of the Mongols, who had employed Chinese gunpowder-based weapons to conquer parts of Europe and the Middle East.

Later it arrived into Central and Western Europe following the Crusades, when European forces discovered the substance from the Islamic forces they faced. It was brought to the Indian subcontinent by the Middle East as well in the 14th century. Prior to the 15th century, gunpowder was used on a limited basis, but its use became universal in the early modern period, its apex occurring during the Napoleonic Wars from 1792 to 1815.

The understanding of "gunpowder warfare", expressed here, comes from the works of Michael Roberts who argued that a military revolution occurred in the 16th century that forever changed warfare, and society in general. Since he wrote in the 1950s his narrative has been augmented and challenged by other scholars. When exactly the revolution occurred is debated, and whether it was a revolution or a slow transformation is also discussed.

A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage.

Gunpowder and flame projector tubes were first invented and used in military combat in China before the technology was transmitted elsewhere, with advanced technological innovation during the Chinese Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279). The cannon later arrived in the Muslim world in the 13th century, where the explosive hand cannon was invented. These then reached the Iberian Peninsula, with gunpowder described in Europe by Roger Bacon in 1216 and 1248; however, for a long time European gunpowder weapons were unpredictable, unwieldy and difficult to deploy. As a result, they were mainly used for attacking castles and other defences, a task that was equally well suited to undermining or non-explosive weapons.

The development of the siege cannon did have an important effect: it soon made existing castle designs, such as majestic towers and merlons, obsolete. Fortresses with sloping walls, to deflect cannon shots, brought the siege back to being one of the central aspects of warfare during this era. The trace italienne and Star fort became the new fortress designs, although building them was generally vastly expensive. Small states and local aristocrats rarely had the money to build these defences, and these groups lost power in favour of the centralized governments. The once mighty city states of Italy became parts of the French or Holy Roman Empires, while the small states of Germany were forced into vassalage to a greater power or to coalitions of the larger states.

Weaponry is often placed at the forefront of technological advancement and the invention of the arquebus soon began an arms race. The useful but still unwieldy weapon was refined and reduced in size through many rapid developments culminating in the smoothbore musket around 1600. These small, portable, personal weapons, which could fire projectiles over rapidly increasing distances with greater accuracy, heralded the growth of modern warfare. Gustavus Adolphus pioneered the use of lighter field artillery in the 1630s. In naval warfare, the cannon maintained its position of pre-eminence due to the fact that guns were aimed by positioning the angle of the ship more commonly than not. Small arms never had a fraction of the importance in naval gunpowder warfare as they had on land.

Chine et Empire mongol

Chine ancienne

Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044 AD.

Hand Cannon from the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368)

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Chinese musketeers.

Many regions participated in gunpowder warfare during this period. The first civilization that employed the use of gunpowder in warfare was medieval China, beginning in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960 AD).

The impetus for the development of gunpowder weapons in China was increasing encroachment by tribes on its borders. From the 10th century until the 13th century, advances in military technology aided the Song Dynasty in its defense against their hostile neighbors to the north, including the Tanguts, Khitans, Jurchens, and finally the Mongols.

The discovery of gunpowder in the 9th century and the subsequent invention of firearms in the 12th century both coincided with long periods of disunity during which there was some immediate use for infantry and siege weapons.

The years 904–906 saw the use of incendiary projectiles called 'flying fires' (fei-huo). Modèle:Harvcoltxt argues that gunpowder was first used in warfare in China in 919 as a fuse for the ignition of another incendiary, Greek fire. The earliest depiction of a gunpowder weapon is a mid-10th century silk banner from Dunhuang that shows a fire-lance, precursor of the gun.

The earliest surviving recipes for gunpowder can be found in the Wujing Zongyao of 1044, which contains three: two for use in incendiary bombs to be thrown by siege engines and one intended as fuel for poison smoke bombs. One of the recipes describes a 'thorny fire-ball' bomb designed with caltrops to catch and stick to targets and set them alight. It calls for a mixture of sulfur, saltpeter, charcoal and other filler and combustible ingredients to be packaged into a ball that is lit just prior to being launched from a trebuchet.

The formulas in the Wujing zongyao range from 27 to 50 percent nitrate. Experimenting with different levels of saltpeter content eventually produced bombs, grenades, and mines, in addition to giving fire-arrows a new lease on life. By the end of the 12th century, there were cast iron grenades filled with gunpowder formulations capable of bursting through their metal containers. The 14th century Huolongjing contains gunpowder recipes with nitrate levels ranging from 12% to 91%, six of which approach the theoretical composition for maximal explosive force. Modèle:Harvcoltxt argues that the use of gunpowder in artillery as an explosive (as opposed to a mere incendiary) was made possible by improvements in the refinement of sulfur from pyrite during the Song Dynasty.

In the battles of Tangdao and Caishi, which both took place in 1161, combatants employed both grenades and soft-case bombs packed with lime and sulfur. In 1221, cast iron bombs thrown by hand, sling, and catapult are mentioned, yet earlier in 1161 trebuchets on Song Dynasty naval warships were used to launch gunpowder bombs at the opposing Jin Dynasty navy.

The Tê-An Shou Chhêng Lu, an account of the siege of De'an in 1132, records that Song forces used fire-lances against the Jurchens.

The earliest depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan dating to the 12th century of a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard with flames and a cannonball coming out of it. The oldest gun ever discovered, dated to 1288, has a muzzle bore diameter of 2.5 cm; the second oldest, dated to 1332, has a muzzle bore diameter of 10.5 cm.

In his 1341 poem 'The Iron Cannon Affair', one of the first accounts of the use of gunpowder artillery in China, Zhang Xian wrote that a cannonball fired from an eruptor could 'pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse, and can even transfix several persons at once'. During wartime, the Chinese used the early gunpowder weapons in defense against the Mongols, and the weapon was taken up by the Mongol conquerors later. An account of a 1359 battle near Hangzhou records that both the Ming Chinese and Mongol sides were equipped with cannon.

The 13th century saw the beginnings of rocketry and its use in both peace and war.

The Chinese Divine Engine Division, which helped the Zhu Yuanzhang overthrow the Mongols and create the Ming Dynasty around 1368, used entirely gunpowder weaponry.

In the middle of the 14th century Jiao Yu, who had served Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang as an artillery officer and become one of his confidants, compiled a military treatise called the Huolongjing. In addition to descriptions of old standbys like gunpowder recipes, fire arrows, fire lances, cannons and bombards, the Huolongjing also described poisonous gunpowder recipes, naval mines, land mines which employed a wheellock and falling weight mechanism, rocket launchers and even multistage rockets. Modèle:Harvtxt suggests that the proto-shells described in the Huolongjing may be among the first of their kind.

Mongol Empire

By the 13th century, explosive projectiles were being used by the Mongols in their invasions of Japan. A set of scrolls commissioned by Takezaki Suenaga, a Japanese warrior who fought against the Mongols, depict the Mongol’s use of an exploding shell, known as a teppo. In addition, several more explosive shells have been discovered off the coast of Japan where several ships of the Mongol fleet sank during their second invasion.

Islamic world

Medieval period

The Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder some time after 1240, but before 1280, by which time Hasan al-Rammah had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. However, because al-Rammah attributes his material to "his father and forefathers", Modèle:Harvcoltxt argues that gunpowder became prevalent in Syria and Egypt by "the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth".

Hasan al-Rammah included 107 gunpowder recipes in his al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices), 22 of which are for rockets. If one takes the median of 17 of these 22 compositions for rockets (75% nitrates, 9.06% sulphur and 15.94% carbon), it is almost identical with the reported ideal recipe (75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulphur, and 15% carbon).

Al-Hassan claims that "the first cannon in history" was used by the Mamluks against the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260; Khan claims that it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world and cites Mamluk antagonism towards early gunmen in their infantry as an example of how gunpowder weapons were not always met with open acceptance in the Middle East. Similarly, the refusal of their Qizilbash forces to use firearms contributed to the Safavid rout at Chaldiran in 1514.

The earliest surviving documentary evidence for the use of the hand cannon, considered the oldest type of portable firearm and a forerunner of the handgun, are from several Arabic manuscripts dated to the 14th century. Al-Hassan argues that these are based on earlier originals and that they report hand-held cannons being used by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.

Ottoman Empire

Tarasnice from the Hussite wars (1419-1434)

The bronze Dardanelles cannon, used by the Ottoman Turks in the siege of Constantinople in 1453.

Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk

The Ottoman Empire had been one of the first Middle Eastern states (that extended into Europe, making them the first European state as well) to effectively use gunpowder weapons and used them to great effect conquering much of the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans. In the 17th century the state began to stagnate as more modern technologies and strategies were not adopted. Specifically, the Ottoman Empire was slow to adopt innovations like boring cannon (rather than casting them in a mold), making the conversion from matchlock firearms to flintlocks, and the lightening of field guns and carriages.

In part this was because the military elite had become a powerful force in the empire and change threatened their positions. David Nicolle theorizes that one contributing factor to the Ottoman reluctance to adopt the flintlock musket, despite its superiority over the matchlock ignition system, was the dusty climate of much of the Middle East which could cause problems with reliability.

Overall, the Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 18th centuries has been assessed as a third-tier military producer, that is a producer which copies existing technologies, but does not capture the underlying process of innovation (first-tier producer) or adaption (second-tier producer). Other research, though, complicates that view. A Chinese military manual published in 1644 compared Ottoman and European firearms in the following manner:

Firearms have been in use since the beginning of the dynasty, and field armies in battle formation have found them convenient and useful to carry along...Since muskets have been transmitted to China, these weapons have lost their effectiveness...In battle formation, aside from various cannon such as the "three generals," the breach loading swivel gun, and the "hundred-league thunder," nothing has more range or power than the Ottoman musket. The next best is the European one.

The fact that Ottoman firearms were considered by 17th century Chinese writers to be superior to European firearms demonstrates that the Ottoman Empire was at least a second tier producer of muskets during this period. However, some claim that the 'European' firearms the Chinese researcher tested were actually Japanese arquebuses based on fifty year old Portuguese models. The design of the Ottoman matchlock is substantially different from that of the European variety and it in turn influenced the matchlocks produced in both Safavid Persia and Mughal India.

15th Century

The Ottoman Empire was one of the first states to put gunpowder weapons into widespread use. The famous Janissary corps of the Ottoman army began using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s. The army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons. The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.

16th Century

The 16th century saw the first widespread use of the matchlock musket as a decisive weapon on the battlefield with the Turks becoming leaders in this regard. The first of these campaigns was the campaign against the Persians in 1514 under Yavuz Sultan Selim, or Selim the Grim. Armed with gunpowder weapons, his army defeated the Persians at the Battle of Chaldiran. After his victory over the Safavids, Selim turned his attention towards the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt. The decisive battle of his campaign against the Mamluks, and the battle which highlighted the importance of the musket in the Ottoman military, was the Battle of Raydaniyah, fought in 1517. There, Selim outflanked the entrenched Mamluk artillery, and attacked the Mamluk forces with his Janissaries. The Janissaries, armed with firearms, destroyed the Mamluk army, armed mostly with traditional swords and javelins.

Reference was made by João de Barros to a sea battle outside Jiddah, in 1517, between Portuguese and Ottoman vessels. The Muslim force under Salman Reis had "three or four basilisks firing balls of thirty palms in circumference". This was estimated to be a cannon of about 90 inch bore "firing cut stone balls of approximately 1,000 pounds (453 kg)".

After the death of Selim, he was succeeded by his son Suleiman the Magnificent. During his reign, gunpowder weapons continued to be used effectively. One important example, is the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. During this battle, Ottoman artillery, and Janissaries armed with muskets, were able to cut down charging Hungarian cavalry.

17th Century

Although the cannon and musket were employed by the Ottomans long beforehand, by the 17th century they witnessed how ineffective the traditional cavalry charges were in the face of concentrated musket-fire volleys. In a report given by an Ottoman general in 1602, he confessed that the army was in a distressed position due to the emphasis in European forces for musket-wielding infantry, while the Ottomans relied heavily on cavalry. Thereafter it was suggested that the janisseries, who were already trained and equipped with muskets, become more heavily involved in the imperial army while led by their agha.

By the middle of the 17th century, the continued reliance of the Ottomans on over-heavy ordnance had been made out by European officers as a liability. Raimondo Montecuccoli, the Habsburg commander who defeated the Ottomans at Battle of Saint Gotthard commented on Ottoman cannon:

This enormous artillery produces great damage when it hits, but it is awkward to move and it requires too much time to reload and site. Furthermore, it consumes a great amount of powder, besides cracking and breaking the wheels and the carriages and even the ramparts on which it is placed . . . our artillery is more handy and more efficient and here resides our advantage over the cannon of the Turks.

Safavid Empire

Soon after the Ottoman Empire, two other Muslim gunpowder empires appeared: the Safavid Empire in Persia and the Mughal Empire in India. They both began in the early 16th century but later collapsed in the 18th century.

The refusal of their Qizilbash forces to use firearms contributed to the Safavid rout at Chaldiran in 1514.

Despite this initial reluctance, the Persians very rapidly acquired the art of making and using handguns. A Venetian envoy, Vincenzo di Alessandri, in a report presented to the Council of Ten on 24 September 1572, observes:

"They used for arms, swords, lances, arquebuses, which all the soldiers carry and use; their arms are also superior and better tempered than those of any other nation. The barrels of the arquebuses are generally six spans long, and carry a ball little less than three ounces in weight. They use them with such facility that it does not hinder them drawing their bows nor handling their swords, keeping the latter hung at their saddle bows till occasion requires them. The arquebus is then put away behind the back so that one weapon does not impede the use of the other."

Mughal Empire

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire on the Indian subcontinent, employed firearms, gun carts and movable artillery in battle. In particular, he used them at the first Battle of Panipat (1526) to defeat the much larger forces of Ibrahim Lodhi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Other battles he fought using gunpowder weapons include the Battle of Khanwa in 1527 against Rana Sanga, and the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529.

Tipu Sultan invented the first iron rockets in Mysore, India.

His descendants also employed gunpowder weapons in their expansion of the Mughal Empire, such as Akbar the Great at the second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Adil Shah Suri and Hemu of the Sur Dynasty. In circa 1582, Fathullah Shirazi, a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. Another cannon-related machine he created could clean sixteen gun barrels simultaneously, and was operated by a cow. He also developed a seventeen-barrelled cannon, fired with a matchlock.

Kingdom of Mysore

The first iron rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore. He successfully used these iron rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.

Europe

L'introduction de la poudre en Europe

Scène de siège à la fin du Moyen Âge (fin du XVème siècle). L'infanterie y est représentée amplement dotée d'armes de tir et notamment de couleuvrines ou « canons à main », précurseurs de l' arquebuse. L'usage de plus en plus généralisé des armes à feu mettra finalement un terme à la prépondérance de la Chevalerie sur les champs de bataille de la Renaissance, l'infanterie, appuyée par l'artillerie, devenant désormais la « reine des batailles ».

Firearms

The power of aristocracies fell throughout Western Europe during this period in relation to the state. Their 200-400 year old ancestral castles were no longer useful defences against artillery. The nobility's role in warfare was also eroded as the Medieval heavy cavalry lost its central role in battle. The heavy cavalry made up of armored knights had been fading in importance in the Late Middle Ages. The English longbow and the Swiss pike had both proven their ability to devastate larger armed forces of mounted knights. However, the proper use of the longbow required a lifetime of training, making it impossible to amass very large forces.

The proper use of the pike required complex operations in formation and a great deal of fortitude and cohesion by the pikemen, again making amassing large forces difficult. Starting in the early 14th century, plate armour pieces were added to the traditional protective linked mail armour of knights and men-at-arms to guard against the arrows of the longbow and crossbow. By 1415 the first "hand cannons" were deployed by some infantrymen, and the earliest small bore arquebuses, with burning "match locks" appeared on the battlefield in the later 15th century.

Role of Plate Armour

During an interval that lasted for 250 years (1400 to 1650), extensive plate armour was worn in virtually all major European battles, by both some infantrymen(usually pikemen) and almost all mounted troops. Plate armour was expected to deflect edged weapons and to stop an arquebus or pistol ball fired from a distance, and it usually did. The threat (firearms) and remedy (plate armour)for it tended to work as long as the velocity and weight of the ball was quite low, but over time more effective firearms, like flintlock muskets (entering use after 1650) could kill an armoured man at a distance of even 100 yards (though without accuracy).

The flintlock musket, carried by most infantrymen other than pikemen after 1650, fired a heavier charge and ball than the matchlock arquebus. A recruit could be trained to use a musket in a matter of weeks. Since the muskets themselves were extremely inaccurate, training in marksmanship was of little benefit. A musket did not require the great physical strength of a pikeman, or the fairly rare skills of a horseman. Unlike their arquebus predecessors, flintlock muskets could neutralize even the most heavily armoured cavalry forces.

Since a firearm requires little training to operate, the order and respect maintained by mounted cavalry in Europe and their Eastern equivalents could now be undermined by a peasant with a gun. Though well-smithed plate armour could still prevent the penetration of gunpowder-weapons, by 1690 it had become no match for massed firearms in a frontal attack and its use ended, even among the cavalry. By the end of the 17th century, soldiers in the infantry and most cavalry units alike preferred the higher mobility to be had from a completely unarmoured state to the slight protection but greatly lessened mobility offered by wearing plate armour.

Transition to flintlock muskets

The arquebus, in use from 1410, was one of the first hand-held firearms that were relatively light (they still required a stand to balance them) and could be operated by one person. One of these weapons was first recorded as being used in the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, although this was still very much a medieval battle. The term musket originally applied to a heavier form of the arquebus, which fired a shot that could pierce plate armour, though only at close range. In the 16th century, it still had to be mounted on a support stick to keep it steady. The caliver was the lighter form of the arquebus. By 1600 these firearms were phased out in favour of a new lighter matchlock musket. Throughout the 16th century and up until 1690, muskets were of the matchlock design.

However, the matchlock design was superseded in the 1690s by the flintlock musket, which was less prone to misfires and had a faster reloading rate. By this time, only light cavalry scouting units, "the eyes of the army" continued to wear front and back armor plates to protect themselves from distant or undisciplined musket-equipped troops.

While soldiers armed with firearms could inflict great damage on cavalry at a moderate distance, at close quarters the cavalry could slaughter the musket-armed infantry if they could break their formation and close to engage in melee combat. For many years infantry formations included a mix of troops armed with both firearms to provide striking power and pikes to allow for the defence of the arqubusiers or musketeers from a cavalry charge. The invention of the bayonet allowed these two weapons to be combined into one in the 1690s, which transformed the infantry into the most important branch of the early modern military—one that uniformly made use of flintlock muskets tipped with bayonets.

Nature of war

Image à remplacer:SiegeOfHulst.jpg|thumb|right|1645 - Siege of the city of Hulst (situated in the Dutch province of Zeeland) by Frederick Henry. Sieges dominated warfare of this era

This period saw the size and scale of warfare greatly increase. The number of combatants involved escalated steadily from the mid 16th century and dramatically expanded after the 1660s. For example, the King of France could field around 20,000 men in total for his wars against Spain in the 1550s, but could mobilize up to 500,000 men into the field by 1700 in the War of Spanish Succession. Moreover, wars became increasingly deadly in this period. This may in part be attributed to improvements in weapons technology and in the techniques of using it (for example infantry volley fire).

However, the main reason was that armies were now much bigger, but logistical support for them was inadequate. This meant that armies tended to devastate civilian areas in an effort to feed themselves, causing famines and population displacement. This was exacerbated by the increasing length of conflicts, such as the Thirty Years' War and Eighty Years' War, which subjected fought over areas to repeated devastation. For this reason, the wars of this era were among the most lethal before the modern period.

For example, the Thirty Years' War and the contemporary Wars of the Three Kingdoms, were the most bloody conflicts in the history of Germany and Britain respectively before the First World War. Another factor adding to bloodshed in war was the lack of a clear set of rules concerning the treatment of prisoners and non-combatants. While prisoners were usually ransomed for money or other prisoners, they were sometimes slaughtered out of hand - as at the battle of Dungans Hill in 1647.

One of the reasons for warfare's increased impact was its indecisiveness. Armies were slow moving in an era before good roads and canals. Battles were relatively rare as armies could manoeuvre for months, with no direct conflict. In addition, battles were often made irrelevant by the proliferation of advanced, bastioned fortifications. To control an area, armies had to take fortified towns, regardless of whether they defeated their enemies field armies. As a result, by far the most common battles of the era were sieges, hugely time-consuming and expensive affairs. Storming a fortified city could result in massive casualties and cities which did not surrender before an assault were usually brutally sacked -for example Magdeburg in 1631 or Drogheda in 1649. In addition, both garrisons and besiegers often suffered heavily from disease.

Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Breitenfield. Adolphus was perhaps the greatest military innovator of this era

The indecisive nature of conflict meant wars were long and endemic. Conflicts stretched on for decades and many states spent more years at war than they did at peace. The Spanish attempt to reconquer the Netherlands after the Dutch Revolt became bogged down in endless siege warfare. The expense caused the Spanish monarchy to declare bankruptcy several times, beginning in 1577.

The changes in warfare eventually made the mercenary forces of the Renaissance and Middle Ages obsolete. However this was a gradual change. As late as the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), most troops were mercenaries. However, after this conflict, most states invested in better disciplined and more ideologically inspired troops. For a time mercenaries became important as trainers and administrators, but soon these tasks were also taken by the state. The massive size of these armies required a large supporting force of administrators. The newly centralized states were forced to set up vast organized bureaucracies to manage these armies, which some historians argue is the basis of the modern bureaucratic state.

The combination of increased taxes and increased centralisation of government functions caused a series of revolts across Europe such as the Fronde in France and the English Civil War. In many countries, the resolution of this conflict was the rise of monarchical absolutism. Only in England and the Netherlands did representative government evolve as an alternative. From the late 17th century, states learned how to finance wars through long term low interest loans from national banking institutions like the Bank of England. The first state to master this process was the Dutch Republic.

This transformation in the armies of Europe had great social impact. J.F.C. Fuller famously stated that "the musket made the infantryman and the infantryman made the democrat." This argument states that the defence of the state now rested on the common man, not on the aristocrats, revolts by the underclass, that had routinely been defeated in the Middle Ages, could now conceivably threaten the power of the state. However, aristocrats continued to monopolise the officer corps of almost all early modern armies, including their high command.

Moreover, popular revolts almost always failed unless they had the support and patronage of the noble or gentry classes. The new armies, because of their vast expense, were also dependent on taxation and the commercial classes who also began to demand a greater role in society. The great commercial powers of the Dutch and English matched much larger states in military might. As any man could be quickly trained in the use of a musket, it became far easier to form massive armies. The inaccuracy of the weapons necessitated large groups of massed soldiers. This led to a rapid swelling of the size of armies.

For the first time huge masses of the population could enter combat, rather than just the highly skilled professionals. It has been argued that the drawing of men from across the nation into an organized corps helped breed national unity and patriotism, and during this period the modern notion of the nation state was born. However, this would only become apparent after the French Revolutionary Wars. At this time, the levée en masse and conscription would become the defining paradigm of modern warfare.

Before then, however, most national armies were in fact composed of many nationalities. For example, although the Swedish Army under Gustavus Adolphus was originally recruited by a kind of national conscription, the losses of the Thirty Years' War meant that by 1648 over 80% of its troops were foreign mercenaries. In Spain, armies were recruited from all the Spanish European territories including Spain, Italy, Wallonia and Germany. The French recruited soldiers from Germany, Switzerland and elsewhere as well as from France. Britain recruited Hessian troops until the late 18th century. Irish Catholics made careers for themselves in the armies of many European states (See the Flight of the Wild Geese).

Infantry

Column - This formation was typically used while marching, although with sufficient will and mass it was effective at breaking through line formations, albeit with heavy casualties.

Line - A simple two- or three-rank deep line formation allowed most muskets to be brought to bear and was the most commonly used battle formation. Often the first rank would kneel after firing to allow the second rank to fire.

Square - This formation was used against cavalry. Bayonets would be fixed, the first line would kneel with their muskets angled upward (much like a pike.) The second and third lines would fire at the cavalry when it came close. This formation was very ineffective when faced with combined cavalry and infantry, or artillery fire in the case of plain squares.

Skirmishers - Light infantry would advance and be the first to fire to draw the enemy to attack. Sharpshooters would not target common soldiers, but the officers so that the men were without leadership.

Cavalry

The death of King Gustavus II Adolphus in cavalry melee on 16 November 1632 at the Battle of Lützen

The rise of gunpowder reduced the importance of the once-dominant heavy cavalry, but it remained effective in a new role into the 19th century. The cavalry, along with the infantry, became more professional in this period but it retained its greater social and military prestige than the infantry. Light cavalry was introduced for skirmishing and scouting because of its advantage in speed and mobility. The new types of cavalry units introduced in this period were the dragoons or mounted infantry.

Dragoons were intended to travel on horseback but fight on foot and were armed with carbines and pistols. Even orthodox cavalry carried firearms, especially the pistol, which they used in a tactic known as the caracole. Cavalry charges using swords on undisciplined infantry could still be quite decisive, but a frontal charge against well-ordered musketeers and pikemen was all but futile. Cavalry units, from the 16th century on, were more likely to charge other cavalry on the flanks of an infantry formation and try to work their way behind the enemy infantry. When they achieved this and pursued a fleeing enemy, heavy cavalry could still destroy an enemy army.

However, the power formerly wielded by a heavy cavalry-focused army was at an end. For the first time in millennia, the settled people of the agricultural regions could defeat the horse peoples of the steppe in open combat. The power of the Mongols was broken in Russia and, no longer threatened from the east, Russia began to assert itself as a major force in European affairs. Never again would nomads from the east threaten to overrun Europe or the Middle East. In the Siege of Kazan (1552), Russia had employed cavalry, infantry armed with arquebus (Streltsy), artillery and sappers, while the Khanate of Kazan had only employed cavalry. The use of sappers proved decisive.

The one exception to this was the Ottoman Empire, which had been founded by Turkish horsemen. Arguably the world's greatest power for almost the entirety of the early modern period, the Ottomans were some of the first to embrace gunpowder artillery and firearms and integrated them into their already formidable fighting abilities. As European infantry became better armed and disciplined, by about 1700, the Ottoman forces began to be regularly defeated by the troops of the Austrian Habsburgs and other Western forces.

Beginning of polygonal fortifications

Siège de la ville de Komarno, sur le Danube, par les Ottomans en 1594.

Model of city with polygonal fortifications

The period from 1500–1801 saw a rapid advance in techniques of fortification in Europe. Whereas medieval castles had relied on high walls to keep out attackers, early modern fortifications had to withstand artillery bombardments. To do this, engineers developed a style of fortress known as the trace italienne or "Italian style". These had low, thick, sloping walls, that would either absorb or glance off cannon fire.

In addition, they were shaped like stars, with bastions protruding at sharp angles. The reason for this was to ensure that every bastion could be supported with fire from an adjacent bastion, leaving no "dead ground" for an attacker to take cover in. These new fortifications quickly negated the advantages cannon had offered to besiegers.

A polygonal fort is a fortification in the style that evolved around the middle of the 18th century, in response to the development of explosive shells.

The complex and sophisticated designs of star forts that preceded them were highly effective against cannon assault, but proved much less effective against the more accurate fire of rifled guns and the destructive power of explosive shells. The polygonal style of fortification is also described as a "flankless fort". Many such forts were built in the United Kingdom and the British Empire during the government of Lord Palmerston, and so they are also often referred to as Palmerston forts. Their low profile makes them easy to overlook.

In response to the vulnerabilities of star forts, military engineers evolved a much simpler but more robust style of fortification.

An example of this style can be seen at Fort McHenry in Baltimore in the United States of America, the home of the famous battle where the "Star Spangled Banner" was penned by F.S. Key.

Japan

In Japan the pattern of military development was somewhat different from that in Europe or the Middle East. Soon after contact with Portuguese traders in the year 1543, firearms were adopted in the nation and an era of gunpowder warfare followed for several decades, culminating at the famous Battle of Nagashino in 1575, where volley fire was introduced. The Japanese under Toyotomi Hideyoshi also used firearms against the Koreans and Chinese during the Imjin War of the 1590s, which proved effective, yet the Chinese and Koreans matched this with farther-range cannon fire.

Once the Japanese home islands were unified in the early 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate launched an effort to solidify the power of the feudal samurai class and banned the use and manufacture of all firearms (as well as repairs to feudal castles). Between the seventeenth and late 19th centuries Japanese warfare remained medieval and its society feudal in nature.

Naval warfare

The spread of European power around the world was closely tied to naval developments in this period. The caravel for the first time made unruly seas like the Atlantic Ocean open to exploration, trade, and military conquest. While in all previous eras, European navies had been largely confined to operations in coastal waters, and were generally used only in a support role for land-based forces, this changed with the introduction of the new vessels like the caravel, carack and galleon and the increasing importance of international waterborne trade in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The new caravels were large enough and powerful enough to be armed with cannons with which they could bombard both shoreline defenses and other vessels.

Articles connexes

• Guerre à l'Ère moderne
• Hwacha - Singijeons
• Bataille de Caishi - Bataille de Tangdao

Liens externes

• (en) Military Science in Western Europe in the 16th Century. (PDF).

Notes et références

Références

Catégorie:Art de la guerre

it:Uso bellico della polvere da sparo no:Tidlig moderne krigføring tr:Barutlu silahlarla savaş

Guerres de religion

Le terme de guerres de religion désigne une série de conflits qui, en Europe, opposèrent les protestants et les catholiques aux XVI^e et XVII^e siècles

Par ailleurs, à la fin du XVII^e siècle et au début du XVIII^e siècle, la Révocation de l'édit de Nantes (1685) amena le roi de France Louis XIV à lancer une série de campagnes de persécutions religieuses - connues notamment sous le nom de « Dragonnades » - contre les populations protestantes à l'intérieur même du Royaume de France, celles-ci aboutissant finalement à la Guerre des Cévennes menée contre les Camisards.

Renaissance (XVIème siècle)

Saint Barthélemy, le 24 aout 1572

Massacre de la population de la ville néerlandaise d'Oudewater par les Espagnols pendant la Guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans.

• En Suisse, les guerres de Kappel (1529 et 1531) sont les premières guerres de religion qui ont eu lieu en Europe.

• En Basse-Navarre, royaume distinct du royaume de France au XVI^e siècle, un conflit de même nature eut lieu de 1560 à 1572.

• En France, les guerres de religion constituent une série de huit conflits qui se sont déroulés entre 1562 et 1598.

• Dans les Pays-Bas espagnols, les guerres de religion ont pris la forme d'une guerre d'indépendance connue sous le nom de Guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans.

XVIIème siècle

• La Guerre de Trente ans opposa de 1618 à 1648, les Princes et souverains protestants et catholiques.

Articles connexes

• Invincible Armada

Littérature et écrivains militaires

En Europe, l' Époque moderne voit une production particulièrement riche dans le domaine de la « littérature militaire savante ».

Science militaire

Premiers historiographes militaires

Antiquité méso-orientale

• Chroniques des guerres de Ramsès II

Chine ancienne : des origines à la Dynastie des Tang (Xème siècle ap. J.C.)

Antiquité pré-impériale.

Dynastie Qin.

Dynastie Han occidentale - Dynastie Xin - Dynastie Han occidentale.

IIIème-VIIème siècles : Trois Royaumes - Dynastie Jin - Dynasties du Nord et du Sud - Dynastie Sui.

Dynastie Tang.

• Bei Qi shu (北齊書), official history of the Northern Qi, by Li Baiyao
• Bei shi (北史), official history of the Northern Dynasties, by Li Yanshou
• Chen shu (陳書), official history of the Chen dynasty, by Yao Silian

Historiographie de la Chine impériale après les Tang

Période des Cinq Dynasties et des Dix Royaumes.

Dynastie Song.

Dynastie Yuan.

Dynastie Ming.

Dynastie Qing.

• An nan ji lüe (安南紀略) history of the war against Annam
• Ba le bu ji lüe (巴勒布紀略) history of the first Gurkha war
• Zhong shu zheng kao (中樞政考), compendium on the military institutions of the Qing
• Dong zheng ji (東征集), history of the conquest of Taiwan 1723 by Lan Dingyuan

Antiquité greco-latine

• Homère et la guerre de Troie
• Jules et sa Guerre des Gaules

Hérodote, Tite-Live, Xénophon

Littérature épique et poésie militaire

• Chanson de geste

• Renaissance de l'épopée: la poésie épique en France de 1572 à 1623 Par Bruno Méniel - Google Books

L' « Art de la guerre » : la polémologie didactique raisonnée

« La guerre est aussi ancienne que le monde... Mais l'instruction pratique, si féconde qu'elle soit, ne suffit pas. L'art de la guerre, « le plus grand de tous, après celui de gouverner », exige encore de laborieuses méditations. »

— Victor Develay, Présentation du « Traité de l'Art militaire » de Végèce

Pensée militaire : ensemble des doctrines et théories relatives à la conduite de la guerre et à la gestion des moyens militaires. Premières ébauches théoriques en Chine. Rien de significatif dans les civilisations du Croissant fertile ( Moyen Orient ) ou Egypte. Début en Occident  : Grèce et Rome antiques : est le fait de « théoriciens purs » comme Xénophon ou d'historiens comme Titus Livius ou Suétone ( commentaires critiques des évènements militaires )

Chine ancienne

« A l'autre extrémité d'un continent immense, cette pensée (militaire-NdA) était née et se développait depuis des siècles, transmise par tradition orale. Celle-ci se fixa et prit forme au VIe siècle av. J.-C. dans l'enseignement d'un général nommé Sun-Tse. Il est probable que ce corps de doctrine, toujours oral, s'est modifié, altéré au cours des siècles; que certaines parties ont été corrigées ou complétées par d'autres penseurs : Se-Ma au IVe siècle, Ou-Tse, au IIIe siècle av. J.-C. L'essentiel est que l'on se trouve devant un ensemble cohérent qui dénote une continuité remarquable de la pensée militaire. La doctrine de Sun-Tse se réfère déjà à des pratiques séculaires. Elle n'est pas simplement faite de technique et de principes; elle va au fond des choses, au-delà des règles, en reflétant des conceptions philosophiques, car les généraux chinois étaient aussi des mandarins, de hauts lettrés »

— Emile Wanty, L'art de la Guerre

Portrait de Jiang Ziya tiré de l'Encyclopédie Sancai Tuhu rédigée au début du XVIIème siècle.

Les plus vieux textes militaires chinois sont aussi anciens que la civilisation chinoise elle-même. Les armées du Céleste empire ont longtemps bénéficié de cette riche tradition stratégique, influencée par des textes tels que « L'Art de la guerre » de Sun Tzu qui ont profondément influencé la pensée militaire. Bien que la philosophie confucéenne traditionnelle chinoise ait toujours favorisé des solutions politiques pacifiques et affiché du mépris pour la force militaire brutale, les militaires ont été influents dans les affaires de la plupart des États chinois. Les travaux des stratèges bien connus tels que Sun Tzu et Sun Bin ont fortement influencé la philosophie militaire, la guerre et le discours politique à travers la longue histoire de la Chine. Des œuvres comme L'art de la guerre ont également bénéficié d'un fort écho dans le monde entier, influençant des personnalités ou des institutions aussi radicalement divergeantes que le Parti communiste chinois ou l'ancien Secrétaire à la Défense Donald Rumsfeld.

The most well known of these military texts are the Seven Military Classics. The texts were canonized under this name during the 11th century AD, and from the Song Dynasty onwards were included in most military encyclopedias. For imperial officers, either some or all of the works were required reading to merit promotion, analogous to the requirement for all bureaucrats to study and become familiar with Confucius' work. There were many anthologies with different notations and analyses by scholars throughout the centuries leading up to the present versions in Western publishing. Members of the Communist Party of China also studied the texts during the Chinese Civil War as well as many European and American military minds.

Antiquité gréco-romaine

Empirisme antique : Alexandre le Grand et Xénophon - Grèce / Polybe

• Énée le Tacticien

• Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca. 40–103 AD) wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, the Stratagems (Latin: Strategemata), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germany under Domitian, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus and Livy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources.

• Végèce : Epitoma rei militaris

Moyen-âge et Renaissance en Europe

Le grand vide médiéval : elle ( la civilisation du Moyen Âge) perd le secret de presque toutes les sciences humaines; elle se contente d'organiser des rudiments de pouvoir politique; elle désapprend l'art de la guerre. Une grande civilisation qui ne sait plus ni organiser des armées ni se battre, dans laquelle les luttes entre les hommes ne sont que tumultes et chocs de petites foules amorphes, servies par deux seuls instruments: le fer et le feu, dans leur forme élémentaire! - GUGLIELMO FERRERO, Nicollo Machiavel, Conferencia, Journal de l'Université de annales, Paris, 1935.

A développer : élaboration d'un corpus doctrinaire et « pédagogique » à partir de l'étude de l'Histoire - pour la Renaissance voir p.ex. Nicolas Machiavel - les premiers théoriciens militaires européens cherchant à donner quelque légitimité à leurs écrits « didactiques » par des leçons d'histoire militaire ancienne - en particulier avec des réf à l'antiquité hellénistique et romaine - appuyant leurs thèses et idées.

Blaise de Monluc - Ayant commencé sa carrière militaire en 1515 comme archer au sein d'une compagnie d'ordonnance, il quitte volontairement la cavalerie pour servir comme officier d'infanterie - il sera Colonel-général de l'infanterie française - et devient un spécialiste de la guerre de siège, offensive et défensive, et des coups de main, s'illustrant lors des campagnes d'Italie pendant la première moitié du XVIème siècle puis pendant les Guerres de religion. Il est fait Maréchal de France en 1572 avant de prendre sa retraite pendant laquelle il rédigera ses Commentaires. Ceux-ci sont tout autant un témoignage sur les moeurs et l'histoire militaire de son temps qu'une sorte de manuel d'instruction et de traité pédagogique sur l'« art de la guerre » à l'usage des « cadres ».

XVIIème et XVIIIème siècles en Europe

Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert

Les règlements militaires

A traiter ici ???? Renaissance : premier traités militaires et naissance des armées nationales « modernes » ⇒ premiers règlements militaires

L’Edict et Ordonnance sur le fait de la conduicte des gens de guerre et discipline militaire du 27 mai 1596 : une source normative pour l’histoire sociale des armées modernes, in Bulletin de la Commission royale pour la publication des anciennes lois et ordonnances de Belgique, 46, 2005, p. 9-37

Mémorialistes militaires

Combattants et témoins contemporains, civils ou militaires, des évènements rapportés.

Xénophon ( encore lui !!! )

Ouvrages techniques

• Vitruve sur les machines de siège

• Antérieur à de Vinci, Francesco di Giorgio Martini, ingénieur de la Renaissance, présente dans ses carnets un dessin remarquable connu sous le nom de « l'automobile », vaguement ressemblant à un véhicule à quatre roues.

• The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz "Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima" was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual

Polémologie et historiographie militaire modernes (XIXème-XXIème siècles)

Historiographie militaire moderne : mémorialistes et historiens

Mémorialistes.

• Jean-Roch Coignet

Historiens.

• Theodor von Bernhardi
• Joseph Rogniat : voir : [1]

Traités didactiques

Théoriciens de la « guerre moderne » après 1918.

Études historiques militaires

• XIXème en Europe : Eugène Viollet-le-Duc - Richard Knötel - ...
• L'uniformologie.

Les premiers essais d'uniformologie raisonnée à la fin du XVIIIème siècle - début du XIXième siècle.

Même s'il y eut bien avant cela déjà un certain goût pour l'iconographie militaire (voir les livres d'heures médiévaux ou les cahiers napoléoniens illustrés du Bourgeois de Hambourg), ce n'est que dans la seconde moitié du xixe siècle que l'engouement pour l'étude des uniformes (anciens ou « contemporains ») ne débuta réellement, dans la foulée de la rétro-mania médiévaliste lancée par Viollet-le-Duc. Les premiers ouvrages dans ce domaine sont d'ailleurs assez proches dans leur style et leur présentation (albums illustrés) du travail du grand illustrateur français du Moyen Âge. Richard Knötel peut sans conteste être considéré comme le père de l'uniformologie puisqu'il est l'un des tout premiers à avoir publié des ouvrages illustrés spécifiquement consacrés à ce domaine de la recherche historique, comme suite à ses propres travaux « archéologiques » menés avec la plus grande rigueur scientifique. Le terme d’uniformologie est lui même dérivé du titre de ses ouvrages, Uniformenkunde pouvant être littéralement traduit par art/savoir/science des uniformes. En France, paraissait dès 1862 le Dictionnaire des armées de terre et de mer, encyclopédie militaire et maritime (2 volumes, 1862-1864) d'Adolphe de Chesnel, ouvrage rehaussé de gravures de très bonne facture qui constituent une des premières tentatives d'étude uniformologie en France avec les lithographies de son contemporain Hippolyte Bellangé.

Correspondants de guerre et « presse militaire »

Reportages et correspondants de guerre

• Moyen Âge : Tapisserie de Bayeux - Chronique illustrée contemporaine des faits

Apparition au XIXème : déjà au temps des guerres révolutionnaires puis guerres du Risorgimento italien, Guerre de Crimée, Guerre de Sécession, Guerres pour l'unification allemande dans les années 1860, Guerres coloniales ...

Développement d'une « presse spécialisée » dans le reportage militaire - Raids (magazine) - Assaut (magazine)

Presse scientifique et technique spécialisée

Au 19ème : journaux et bulletins consacrés aux « sciences militaires »

Autres domaines

La Sabretache

Polémologie sociale et politique et sociologie militaire

Guerre et société

Déjà ébauché par Sun Tsé ( voir les commentaires de Wanty )

Les Réformateurs religieux Jean Huss et Ulrich Zwingli : réflexion éthique et critique morale de la guerre

Nicolas Machiavel dans son « Art de la guerre » ne se limite pas aux études de tactiques et de stratégie mais s'attarde aussi sur les aspects politiques de la guerre, thème sur lequel il se penchera également dans son ouvrage « Le Prince ».

Étude des aspects socio-économiques, politiques et culturels du « phénomène guerre » : voir p.ex. Karl Marx et Friedrich Engels ( « études militaires » sur la Guerre de Sécession ). Références au « Darwinisme social » dans la justification politique, « historiciste » voire « morale » de la guerre.

Friedrich von Bernhardi : In Deutschland und der Nächste Krieg (1911), Bernhardi stated that war "is a biological necessity," and that it was in accordance with "the natural law, upon which all the laws of Nature rest, the law of the struggle for existence."

Gaston Bouthoul évidemment.

Articles connexes

• Catégorie:Historien militaire
• Catégorie:Théoricien militaire
• Liste d'écrivains militaires
• Catégorie:Correspondant de guerre

Ferdinand Lecomte - Basil Henry Liddell Hart - Xénophon

Bibliographie

• Louis Burgener : L'art militaire chez Villehardouin et chez Froissart, Les Éditions du Chandelier, 1948.
• Bruno Colson : L'art de la guerre de Machiavel à Clausewitz, Presses universitaires de Namur, 2002 (ISBN 2870373694)
• Henri Delpech : La Tactique au XIIIème siècle', Alphonse Picard Éditeur, Paris 1886.
• Michel Fortmann : Les cycles de Mars : Révolutions militaires et édification étatique de la Renaissance à nos jours, Economica, Bibliothèque Stratégique, 2009 (ISBN 2717856862) (ISBN 978-2717856866)
• M Reinaud, membre de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres : De l'art militaire chez les Arabes au Moyen-age, Journal asiatique, année 1848 -n°9.
• Joseph Rogniat : Considérations sur l'art de la guerre (1816). Réédition : Hachette, Paris, 1978.
• Émile Wanty : L'art de la guerre Marabout Université, Éditions Gérard & Co, Verviers, 1967 pour les tomes 1 et 2 et 1968 pour le tome 3.

Traités et ouvrages doctrinaires

• (en) Carl Von Clausewitz, Niccolò Machiavelli, Antoine-Henri de Jomini :The Prince, on War & the Art of War - Special Edition of Three All-Time Classics on Politics & War, Arc Manor Ed., Rockville (USA) 2007 (ISBN 9780978653651)

Varia

Ouvrages et articles en langue française.

• Louis Albert Beauvais : Etudes Francaises de Litterature Militaire (1855), Kessinger Publishing 2010 (ISBN 1161013539) (ISBN 978-1161013535)
• A. de Favitski de Probobysz  : Répertoire bibliographique de la littérature militaire et coloniale française depuis cent ans , Imp. G. Thone, Paris 1935.
• Bruno Méniel : Renaissance de l'épopée: la poésie épique en France de 1572 à 1623, Librairie Droz S.A., Genève 2004 (ISBN 2600008772) (ISSN 0082-6081)
• Frédérique Verrier : Les armes de Minerve: l'Humanisme militaire dans l'Italie du XVIe siècle, Presses de l'Université Paris-Sorbonne 1997 (ISBN 2840500787)

Ouvrages et articles en langue anglaise.

• Glenn R Wilkinson : Depictions and Images of War in Edwardian Newspapers 1899-1914, Palgrave MacMillan 2003, (ISBN 0333717430), (ISBN 9780333717431) - Presentation
• Dr A. Rahman Zaky : A preliminary Bibliography of Medieval Arabic Military Literature, Gladius, IV (1965), pp. 107-112, (ISSN 0436-029X) [gladius.revistas.csic.es/index.php/gladius/article/download/191/194-1-PB.pdf]

Liens externes

• Militia Genavae : Réforme militaire au XVIème siècle

Notes et références

Références

Catégorie:Art de la guerre Catégorie:Science auxiliaire de l'histoire

Iconographie

A REPLACER DANS LE TEXTE DEFINITIF

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Littérature militaire japonaise

Les premiers écrits japonais ne datent que du VIIIe siècle de notre ère,

DOCU

• NET4WAR
• Diffusion des écrits militaires chinois en Europe : [2]
• VEGECE ET LA CULTURE MILITAIRE AU MOYEN AGE (Ve-XVe siècles)
• Jacob de Gheyn

Beutepanzer

Première Guerre mondiale

Im Ersten Weltkrieg fielen den deutschen Streitkräften so viele britische Tanks (meist Mark IV) in die Hände, dass diese die Anzahl der selbst produzierten Panzer bei weitem überschritten. Es wurden Sammellager und Reparaturwerkstätten eingerichtet und Panzerschwadronen mit den Beutepanzern aufgestellt. Die Tanks wurde mit dem Eisernen Kreuz, als Hoheitszeichen, versehen und erhielten zum Teil einen neuen Tarnanstrich.

Articles connexes

• Marder I

Bibliographie

• Bruno Collin : Combats sur le Cercle Polaire - Somua et Hotchkiss dans la taïga in Batailles & Blindés, n°45 ( Octobre-Novembre 2011 ), pp 8-19.

Notes et références

• (de) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en allemand intitulé « Beutepanzer » (voir la liste des auteurs).

Références

Catégorie:Char de la Première Guerre mondiale Catégorie:Char de la Seconde Guerre mondiale

Camp fortifié

Guerres coloniales

• Siège de Fort Alamo
• Bataille de Rorke's Drift