Utilisateur:AlexandreAssatiani/Troisième République (Géorgie)
(ka) საქართველოს რესპუბლიკა / 'sak'art'velos respublika'
Drapeau de la République démocratique de Géorgie |
Armoiries de la République démocratique de Géorgie |
Hymne |
Dideba |
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Statut |
République parlementaire (1990-1991) République présidentielle (1991-1992) |
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Capitale | Tbilissi |
Langue(s) | géorgien |
PIB | 6 358 000 de dollars |
PIB/hab. | 1 315 de dollars |
Monnaie | Rouble soviétique |
Population | |
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• 1991 | 4 836 000 |
Densité | |
• 1991 | 69,4 |
Gentilé | Géorgien, Géorgienne |
Superficie | |
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• 1991 | 69 700 |
Le Conseil suprême abolit la RSS de Géorgie | |
Début de conflit armé en Ossétie du Sud | |
Référendum sur l'indépendance de la Géorgie | |
Indépendance de la Géorgie | |
Création du système présidentiel | |
Élection présidentielle | |
Révolte de Tenguiz Kitovani | |
Début de la guerre de Tbilissi | |
Proclamation du Conseil militaire | |
Renversement du président Gamsakhourdia | |
Mort de Zviad Gamsakhourdia |
1991-1992 (en exil jusqu'en 1993) | Zviad Gamsakhourdia |
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Entités précédentes :
Entités suivantes :
Prélude
modifierVers la chute de l'URSS
modifierLa Géorgie, nation de Transcaucasie, est membre de l'Union soviétique depuis l'invasion par l'Armée rouge de 1921 qui met fin à l'indépendance de la République démocratique de Géorgie et la création formelle de l'URSS un an plus tard. Le contrôle communiste du pays est caractérisé par de grandes répressions, notammant sous la dictature de Joseph Staline, puis par la « déstalinisation » du régime de Nikita Khrouchtchev qui mène à une russification de la république. Le mouvement dissident anti-soviétique, qui est refoulé de Russie dans la fin des années 1970, prend une nature nationaliste en Géorgie, devenant l'un des rares mouvements indépendantistes de l'URSS. Tentant d'abattre ces sentiments, le KGB arrête deux dirigeants influents du mouvement nationaliste géorgien en avril 1977 : Merab Kostava et Zviad Gamsakhourdia ; mais cela ne fait que grandir le mouvement, qui accueille dans ses rangs de jeunes leaders comme Tamar Tchkheïdzé, Avtandil Imnadzé, Guiorgui Tchantouria et Irakli Tsereteli.
En 1978, la tentative par les autorités soviétiques de rajouter la langue russe comme langue officielle de la république géorgienne (la Géorgie n'est alors qu'une des trois républiques de l'URSS ne reconnaissant pas le russe comme telle) se heurte à de massives protestations. Près de 20 000 étudiants manifestent le 14 avril 1978, forçant le gouvernement d'Edouard Chevardnadzé à négocier avec Moscou pour faire tomber la proposition. Cette victoire activiste force le régime à abandonner des plans similaires en Arménie et en Azerbaïdjan.
De telles manifestations étudiantes deviennent rapidement efficaces dans les années qui suivent. En 1981, des activistes empêchent le gouvernement de reserrer son contrôle sur l'Université Ivané Djavakhichvili de Tbilissi, tandis que Gamsakhourdia est grâcié en avril 1979. En réponse au mouvement nationaliste, la direction académique à Moscou engage le séparatisme en Abkhazie, ce qui ne fait qu'enflammer les manifestations à Tbilissi. En 1985, Mikheïl Gorbatchev prend les reines de l'URSS et lance la perestroïka, libéralisant progressivement la politique de l'Union. Chevardnadzé devient son chef de la diplomatie et est remplacé en Géorgie par Djoumber Patiachvili qui, reconnaissant sa faiblesse politique, suit fidèlement les décrets du Parti communiste de Moscou. En 1988, le mouvement national géorgien est représenté par plusieurs groupes politiques, tel que la Société d'Ilia Tchavtchavadzé, le Parti républicain, le Front populaire, la Société de Chota Roustaveli, le Parti d'indépendance nationale et d'autres. Le 26 mai 1988, une grande manifestation se déroule à Tbilissi pour commémorer les 70 ans depuis la Déclaration d'Indépendance de la République démocratique de Géorgie, un acte de défiance qui entamme une série de protestations à travers le pays.
Ces manifestations, qui se déroulent dans le cadre de la fin de la guerre froide et de l'éffondrement du Pacte de Varsovie, culminent le 4 avril 1989 lorsque Patiachvili impose un couvre-feu et demande aux troupes soviétiques d'intervenir. Dans la nuit du 8 au 9 avril, l'armée soviétique disperse violemment les manifestants, tuant 21 personnes. Cet acte, commémoré jusqu'à ce jour annuellement comme la Journée d'unité nationale en Géorgie, ne fait que radicaliser le Comité pour l'indépendance de la Géorgie, une association unifiant les groupes nationalistes géorgiens et mené par Gamsakhourdia, Kostava et d'autres.
- Asatiani
- In 1985, perestroika began (414)
- In 1987, the Soviet army withdrew from Afghanistan (415)
- Between 1989 and 1990, socialist republics were abolished, Germany was reunited (415)
- Because Patiashvili was considerably weaker than Shevardnadze, he simply followed the decrees of the Kremlin (415)
- Decrees like alcohol restrictions and banning of chacha made the communist regime more unpopular (415)
- By 1988, there were several new organizations and political groups created, like the Ilia Chavchavadze Society, the People's Front, the Shota Rustaveli Society, the Party of National Independence, etc. (416)
- The Republican Party was founded in 1978, the National Independence Party in 1981. Both underground (421)
- A big defiance was the 26 May 1988 70-year celebration of the DRG through large protests in Tbilisi, launching a series of other protests throughout the year (422)
1990 : Premières élections libres
modifierLa tragédie du 9 avril 1989 est considéré comme l'un des vecteurs de la chute de l'empire soviétique. Le « syndrome de Tbilissi » devient la tendance par les troupes communistes à refuser d'utiliser la violence léthale pour disperser des manifestations, un phénomène qui se reproduit à Bakou et à Vilnius, puis lors du Putsch de Moscou en 1991. En Géorgie, le gouvernement soviétique géorgien est remplacé et Guivi Goumberidzé remplace Patiachvili, mais ne peut éviter un exode massif du parti communiste dans la république, tandis que les manifestations s'étendent à Roustavi, Koutaïssi, Sokhoumi et Doucheti.
En 1990, la libéralisation du régime soviétique conduit à des élections démocratiques en Lituanie en février, puis en Estonie et Lettonie le 18 mars. En Géorgie, le gouvernement communiste organise des élections pour élir un nouveau Soviet suprême le 25 mars et, tandis que certains groupes comme le Front populaire, le Parti républicain et la Société Ilia Tchavtchavadzé soutiennent ce processus, d'autres organisations nationalistes refusent d'y participer, accusant le régime soviétique d'illégitimité. Du 13 au 15 mars, une conférence du mouvement national est tenue à Tbilissi pour décider la suite de la lutte indépendantiste : un Forum national est formé et l'opposition s'unie pour demander un boycott du suffrage et pour organiser la convocation d'un « congrès national pour mettre en place un suffrage universel d'un gouvernement de transition, de coalition et d'opposition ». Le 16 mars, tous les candidats non-communistes retirent leur candidature et le 20 mars, le Soviet suprême accepte de repousser les élections jusqu'en automne lors d'une session extraordinaire qui abolit de même le monopole constitutionnel du Parti communiste et autorise des élections multipartites.
Le Forum national ne parvient pas a préserver son unité. Le 7 mai, le bloc « Table ronde » (formé de l'Union géorgienne d'Helsinki, la SIT, le Parti monarchiste et la Société Merab Kostava) se sépare du FN, tandis que le reste du mouvement radical refuse de prendre part aux élections, les considérant illégitimes malgré les promesses démocratiques. Et, tandis que le Soviet suprême adopte une réforme électorale créant 250 députés (150 élus majoritairement et 150 - proportionnellement), le FN décide d'organiser un suffrage interne parallèle pour créer un Congrès national qui n'attire que peu de partisans.
Pour la majorité de la saison électorale, la campagne se déroule entre Communistes et membre de l'opposition, mais celle-ci se désintègre rapidement en six blocs électoraux et huit partis politiques. Un total de 2 400 candidats proportionnels et 1 000 candidats majoritaires sont enregistrés et un large corps d'observateurs internationaux confirment la légitimité du suffrage. Le 28 octobre 1990, près de 70 % de la population se présente aux urnes et élisent deux blocs et quatre partis à la législature de la république soviétique. La Table ronde de Zviad Gamsakhourdia remporte 114 sièges au premier tour, puis 41 autres au second tour du 11 novembre, lui garantissant une majorité du Soviet suprême. Le Parti communiste, jusque là dirigeant totalitaire et incontesté du régime soviétique, devient, pour la première fois, un parti d'opposition avec 64 députés.
- Asatiani
- Instead of fear, the 9 April tragedy had the reverse effect. Protests spread acrosss the country, in Rustavi, Kutaisi, Sokhumi, Dusheti and other towns. (424)
- Patiashvili was replaced by Givi Gumberidze (425)
- But the Communist Party, which until then made up to 8% of the Georgian population, had a mass exodus (425)
- Soviet elections were scheduled for 25 March 1990. Based on the Baltic experience, this was to be the first-ever relatively free elections in Soviet Georgian history (425)
- While many groups like the People's Front, the Republican Party and the Ilia Chavchavadze Society backed the elections, others saw them as illegitimate because of the illegality of the Soviet regime (425)
- To mend the differences, a congress of the national movement was held in Tbilisi on 13-15 March, which led to the boycott of the election and the creation of the National Forum (NDP, Party of Georgia's Independence, Ilia Martali Society, Helsinki Union. Monarchist Party, Merab Kostava Society, Mkhedrioni and others) (425)
- The NF's purpose was to convene a national congress and appoint "universal elections of a transitional, coalition, oppositional government" (425)
- On March 16, all non-communist candidates withdrew their names from the elections (425)
- On 20 March, the Supreme Soviet met in an extraordinary session and agreed to postpone the elections to October or November (426)
- That same session abolished the Communist Party's monopoly in Georgia and allowed the multipartisan system (426)
- Split within the NF led to creation of the Round Table bloc, made of the Helsinki Union, the Ilia Martali Society, the Monarchist Party and the Merab Kostava Society on 7 May (426)
- The new Round Table saw the boycott that the rest of the opposition desired to be ineffective and backed the postponed elections (426)
- Eventually, the Supreme Soviet adopted a law after long public discussions setting 28 October as the election date and creating 250 deputies, 125 to be elected proportionally and 125 majoritarian. The barrier was 4%. (426)
- The remaining NF parties continued their boycott and even held parallel elections to form a national congress (426)
- For most of the election season, it was Commmunists against Opposition, but shortly before, the opposition collapsed and six blocs appeared: Liberty, Agreement-Peace-Renaissance, Round Table, Democratic Georgia among them. And 8 parties (SDP, CP, People's Partu, All Georgia Rustaveli Society, People's Front, etc. (426)
- 2400 proportional and 1000 majoritarian candidates were registered (426)
- A solid corps of international observers declared the election legitimate (426)
- The voter turnout was about 70& (427)
- Round Table won 114 MPs, to the Communists' 61. (427)
- There was a runoff but uneventful (427)
- Zviad Gamsakhurdia was the leader (427)
- Peacefully, the Communist Party went from authoritarian power to opposition (427)
Proclamation
modifier14 novembre 1990 : fin de la Géorgie soviétique
modifier- https://www.jstor.org/stable/152203
- Every political party with seats in the Supreme Soviet favored independence and transition to a market economy, including the Communist party
- The Round Table's platform elaborated that "national independence will have to be elaborated in a transitional period during which the legal, economic and political foundations of the new state will be formulated"
- The Round Table also proclaimed that "the presence of Soviet troops on Georgian soil constitute the occupation force of a foreign power
- The Round Table said that "transitioning into a market economy will create good conditions for the integration of the Georgian economy into the international economy"
- Givi Gumbaridze, in an interview with Komunisti, backed the idea of independence after a transition period
- The new Supreme Council rapidly adopted a new flag, a new emblem and a new anthem
- The Supreme Soviet's first vote was to appoint MP Zviad Gamsakhurdia as Chairman
- https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/georgia/georgia91d.pdf
- The National Congress, also elected in October 1990, created a source of instability that last throughout the first few months of the Gamsakhurdia government, until the Government moved against Mkhedrioni in February 1991
- https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ac6a14.html
- Mkhedrioni was launched in 1988 as a "paramilitary and charitable organization" with obscure financing
- In December 1990, Mkhedrioni launched a hunger strike to protest their restricted access to media.
- In mid-February 1991, the government moved to arrest 20 Mkhedrioni members in Tbilisi and 50 regional leaders, including Ioseliani
- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=cf786e7f-b20f-465b-b370-0f1523ce2eeb%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=125040235&db=a9h
- On March 9, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR adopted the resolution "On Guarantees for the Protection of the State Sovereignty of Georgia," which classified the deployment of Red Army units to Georgia in 1921 as an occupation.
- On June 20, 1990, this same body found all of the treaties and legal acts entered into after "the country's occupation in 1921" illegal.
Changements des institutions
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=5c0b8d89-087e-47e5-800d-8bc23b58666b%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=9710132162&db=f6h
- A new Georgian army started to be created
- Young Georgians had a choice between choosing the Georgian or Soviet armies for military sevice
Référendum et indépendance
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=cf786e7f-b20f-465b-b370-0f1523ce2eeb%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=125040235&db=a9h
- Two union republics of Transcaucasia—Armenia and Georgia—did not participate in the all-union referendum of March 17, 1991, which included a vote on the open-ended question "Do you believe the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics should be preserved as a reorganized federation of equal sovereign republics that fully guarantees the rights and freedoms of peoples of any nationality?"
- While Abkhazians and South Ossetians supported this expression of will, ethnic Georgians residing in Abkhazia and South Ossetia rejected this vote organized by Moscow. Instead, they supported a national Georgian state at a national referendum on March 31.[ 8]
- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=5c0b8d89-087e-47e5-800d-8bc23b58666b%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=9710132162&db=f6h
- There were no direct Moscow reactions on the independence referendum
Courte histoire
modifierCréation du système présidentiel et première élection
modifierTentatives de réformes
modifierGamsakhourdia : nationaliste ou autoritaire
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=5c0b8d89-087e-47e5-800d-8bc23b58666b%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=9710132162&db=f6h
- By December 1990, the National Congress was thought to have 5000 armed men
- There had been several shootings with political motivations
- Within a few months, Gamsakhurdia men started stopping cars and checking them for weapons
Tentatives vers une nouvelle constitution
modifierRévolte à Rkoni
modifierLa guerre civile
modifierLe gouvernement assiégé
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=b6d06f5a-6c50-4f19-9ac1-0b2f31c67fec%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=141412201&db=f6h
- 210,000 files out of 230,000 were burned down during the Tbilisi War
Proclamation du Conseil militaire
modifierDépart de Gamsakhourdia
modifierAutonomies, séparatismes et nationalisme
modifierGuerre en Ossétie du Sud
modifier- https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/europerussiacentral-asia-region/georgiasouth-ossetia-1990-present/
- South Ossetian nationalists declared their independence from Georgia on September 20, 1990,
- the Georgian parliament proclaimed the South Ossetian declaration of independence as illegal on September 21, 1990.
- Elections to the South Ossetian parliament were held on December 9, 1990.
- The Georgian parliament rejected the results of the South Ossetian elections and abolished the South Ossetian autonomous oblast on December 11, 1990.
- Georgians and South Ossetians clashed in Tskhinvali beginning on December 12, 1990,
- President Gamsakhurdia declared a state-of-emergency in the region on December 13, 1990.
- Some 6,000 Georgian troops entered Tskhinvali on January 5-6, 1991.
- On January 7, 1991, President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union condemned the South Ossetian declaration of independence and the Georgian abolition of South Ossetian autonomy.
- The South Ossetian parliament voted for full independence from Georgia on December 21, 1991.
- Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.
- Some 26,000 South Ossetians fled as refugees to other parts of Georgia or North Ossetia (Russia), and some 20,000 South Ossetians were displaced within South Ossetia.
- Some 12,000 ethnic Georgians fled as refugees to Georgia.
- https://reliefweb.int/report/georgia/background-paper-refugees-and-asylum-seekers-georgia-oct-1999
- Georgia for Georgians was known as the rallying call of Gamsakhurdia
- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=0b351e79-2525-4ccb-b408-132179c15cb9%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=137129916&db=f6h
- On December 12, the Georgian government, pointing to the murders of two Georgians and one Ossetian in Tskhinvali, declared a state of emergency.
- When USSR Interior Ministry troops (MVD) arrived in the region on a mission to diffuse the situation (HRW [32]), the Georgian government vehemently objected to what it considered to be Moscow's intervention in Georgian affairs, and deployed 3000–4000 militiamen to Tskhinvali, a move that South Ossetians, in turn, considered an "occupation" (HRW [32], 8–9).
- On January 7, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev annulled both South Ossetia's declaration of independent statehood and Georgia's state of emergency, at the same time calling for all armed units except the Soviet MVD troops to leave South Ossetia (HRW [32]).
- Georgia, however, rejected Gorbachev's decrees, on grounds of uninvited third-party intervention in internal affairs (HRW [32]). An all-out confrontation was imminent.
- On the night of January 5, Georgia's recently formed National Guard, one of two fighting forces that functioned in the absence of a ministry of defense, entered Tskhinvali and engaged in atrocities in the presence of the Soviet MVD troops (Cvetkovski [18]; HRW [32], 9).[ 6]
- Over the remainder of 1991, the conflict was scaled down.
- A May 31 protocol issued by a joint commission representing Georgia, North Ossetia, the USSR, and the RSFSR identified the conflict as an impediment to the reestablishment of Georgian independence and called on the government of Georgia to resolve the conflict by political means (HRW [32]).
- In the end, the joint commission proved to have very limited capacity due to the abstention of the Georgian parliament, and violence resumed in South Ossetia in early winter of 1991 (HRW [32]).
- This time, however, the conflict was waged in a far more polarized, ethnicized, and systemized manner.
- First, in November 1991, eleven months after its imposition, the state of emergency was revoked by the Georgian parliament, thus disempowering the Soviet MVD troops that were protecting the South Ossetians (Birch [11]).
- Then, Georgia's president Gamsakhurdia called on "all Georgians who can carry a gun" to head toward Tskhinvali to put an end to South Ossetian aspirations for independent statehood or unification with Russian North Ossetia (Birch [11], 44).
- In the face of such an irreversible course of events, the South Ossetians coalesced behind the declaration of independent statehood as the only means to defend themselves against an assertive and rising Georgian "tide of nationalism" (Beissinger [10], 29).7
Négociations en Abkhazie
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=0b351e79-2525-4ccb-b408-132179c15cb9%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=137129916&db=f6h
- As violence raged on the South Ossetian front, the Abkhaz authorities in November 1991 coined an agreement of confederation with "thirteen peoples of the North Caucasus" located within Russia (HRW [33], 16).
- This agreement was rebuffed by the Georgian government, which announced, instead, its intention to curtail the status of autonomy that Abkhazia enjoyed (as an ASSR within the Georgian SSR during the Soviet era, and now as an autonomous republic within independent Georgia) (HRW [33], 16).
- Soon, polarization and division emerged within Abkhazia's state institutions, with Abkhaz and ethnic Georgians forming two separate and rival parliaments, each of which denied the other's legitimacy (HRW [33], 16).
Adjarie : Aslan Abachidzé prend pouvoir
modifierProblèmes en Djavakheti
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=eac54613-0a93-4122-b098-56c6b861958b%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=134375447&db=a9h
- Armenians in the region did not benefit from autonomy under the Soviet system, yet it seemed that conflict was also likely there
- They feared Gamsakhurdia's nationalistic rhetoric
- Tensions grew as the Karabakh conflict began, with Javakheti Armenians organizing to provide at least humanitarian help to Armenians there
- The Javakhk Committee was created in February 1988
- It was succeeded by the Javakhk Popular Movement in January 1990
- Several organizations, from local ones to branches of the Armenian Revolutionary group formed the Coordination Council of Armenian Social Organizations and Benevolent Unions Working in Georgia
- Norayr Tadevosyan, deputy head of the JPM, stated that 'the goal of the local Armenian organizations became to defy Gamsakhurdia's mentioned formula. Instead, the real objective for us was to instill the idea that Georgia is not only for Georgians but also for Armenians and the rest'
- Between 1988 and 1990, local Armenians had also stockpiled weapons probably from the 147th Division of the Soviet Army
- In February 1991, the Provisional Council of Representatives was established in Akhalkalaki, inspired by the National Council in NK
- It was made of 24 members and a 7-member Praesidium
- One of the PCR's successes was the prevention of Gamsakhurdia to impose his choice as Gamgebeli of the Akhalkalaki administrative unit
- Three successive Gamsakhurdia nominees were prevented from entering local gov offices and Tbilisi was forced to recognize Samvel Petrosyan of the JPM as Gamgebeli in November 1991, after which the PCR voluntarily disbanded
- For ten months after that, Javakheti enjoyed "de facto independence"
- When tensions were high, Gamsakhurdia was forced to use Levon Ter-Petrosyan for mediation with Javakhk leaders
- When Gamsakhurdia fled Georgia and sought refuge to Armenia, once he left to Ichkeria, his 70-member security detail returned to Georgia voluntarily but was only allowed to pass through Javakheti after disarming, forced by local armed units.
Minorité azerbaïdjanaise
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=03430596-87bb-4f30-80f1-d46823f48239%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=142399842&db=f6h
- A large part of the Kvemo Kartli Azeris had backed the Commmunists in the 1990 elections (there were also cases of voter fraud there)
- Gamsakhurdia rapidly moved to dismiss local Azeri officials
- He also threatened to withhold citizenship and the right to own land from minorities opposing Georgian independence
- He appointed a Georgian to govern the area
- Locals founded the Geyrat (Honor) movement, calling for an autonomous Borchali
- Local self-defense units were formed in response to Georgian gangs intent on expelling them
- One was particularly strong in Marneuli, but Georgian groups succeeded in expelling Azeris from Bolnisi
- Local villages were assigned Georgian names
- Georgian eco-migrants were settled in Bolnisi and Dmanisi, sometimes in the homes of Azeris
Politique étrangère
modifierDivorce de la Russie
modifier- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=cf786e7f-b20f-465b-b370-0f1523ce2eeb%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=125040235&db=a9h
- During the days of the August putsch, Georgian president Zviad Gamsakhurdia essentially recognized the putsch in Moscow.
- On August 19, 1991, he reached an agreement with the commander of the Transcaucasian Military District—the same commander whose troops suppressed the demonstration in Tbilisi on April 9, 1989—to implement all the demands of the GKChP within five days.
- However, by August 21, when the putsch had to all intents and purposes failed, fear of possible mass unrest coupled with the indecisiveness of the Moscow putschists moved Gamsakhurdia to ask Western countries to recognize Georgia's independence.[10]
- https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=3e894c3a-373a-4951-9aa1-f195389e31e8%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=123952515&db=a9h
- Gamsakhurdia pursued a stauncly anti-Russian policy, aligning himself with regional leaders with also strong anti-Russian sentiments like Abulfaz Elchibey of Azerbaijan
- Separatism in Abkhazia and South Ossetia can be seen as a direct response by Russia